Barriers to Implementing E-learning System in Organizations

Barriers to Implementing E-learning System in Organizations 1.0 General introduction/background This chapter deals with general introduction and the background of the research area. It also contains the problem statement, objectives/purpose, research question, and the structure of the thesis. In todays world of globalization, knowledge and learning is considered most vital element for acquiring competitive advantage (Longworth and Davies, 1996). For gaining competitive advantage firms and institutions are becoming more knowledge intensive, therefore they concentrate on managing and sharing knowledge to gain significant advantage of this knowledge (Hertog and Sluijs, 1995).Traditional education style has remained consistent without any changes been made to the system. This has enabled a large number of creative thinkers to ponder other possible educational approaches that could benefit the system (Gà ¼nes, 2008). On the other hand, technology is necessary in order to conquer, but it also a necessity to remain in competition. All the sectors, whether it is primary, manufacturing or tertiary, all of them have been forced to accept technology to become innovative and efficient (Gà ¼nes, 2008). Technology has not only radically changed the ways and methods of our works but is now beginning to transform the education system (Webster and Murphy, 2008).With the use of internet technologies, firms and institutions have outstanding opportunities to deliver education and different training techniques through strategic use of internet technologies (Lee, 2006; Kaohsiung; Taiwan, 2006). The use of Internet technologies combined with suitable learning strategies assists to provide an open, flexible and dynamic learning environment. As a result many corporations, government agencies and academic institutions worldwide have increased the use of internet and educational technologies to deliver instructions and provide training. This innovative approach of delivering information and education is known as E-learning (Khan, 2008). E-learning can be simply defined as the way of learning which delivers its contents through World Wide Web (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Sharifabadi defined e-lear ning as â€Å"the term used to describe teaching and learning resources or experiences that is, in some way, delivered electronically†. (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Sharifabadi, 2006, p.391). E-learning is a way of interaction through electronic mediums, mainly computers, by using videos, photos, texts and sounds for different educational purposes (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). E-learning system creates a learning opportunity for the convenience of those who dont have the opportunity to be physically available due to various reasons (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Werry, 2002). Hence, during the late 1990s and early 2000 many virtual universities were established and more universities were offering online courses, but mixed results of the e learning systems were encountered (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Different researches have pointed out many barriers in e learnings implementation, which lead to its failure. For example technological infrastructure, course content quality, finance support, learners computing skills, staff training, management support and organizations culture resistance (Romiszowski, 2003, Childs et al, 2005, Muilenburg and Berge, 2005). Organizations cultural resistance is considered as the most influential barrier in e learnings implementation process. The cultures resistance or resistance from the potential users negatively affects the implementation process. Unwillingness of the employees can create major problems for the managers and can lead to the system failure (Shields and Young, 1989, p. 22). Employees resistance and avoiding of the use of required procedures and rules could lead the system to failure even if it has been developed perfectly and is ready to use (Malmi, 1997, p. 475). In this instant the managers cannot gain full benefits of the new system unless they can create a change in the employees attitude (Yates, 1997, p. 164). Cultural differences among peers could create many problems in implementation of e learning system. Therefore, if the cultural issues are overlooked during implementation, their ignorance could act as a vital barrier in e learnings success. (AL-Hunaiyyan et al, 2008; Gujar and Sonone, 2004) 1.1 Problem statement There are different articles and books available in the market which mention about the usefulness and advantages of E learning. Web-based learning is a new medium of information technology; researchers have mentioned many different factors which act as barriers towards implementing E-learning system (Ngai et al., 2007). There are different factors cited by various authors which exist in their research papers that can help us to identify critical barriers. In addition, we are interested in finding out, to which extent an organization is dependent on the role of its culture, and how culture can lead to success or failure of the E-learning system. It should be noted that culture has a great impact in organizations and are important when decision making is involved in IT management. In this regard, an organization is said to be confronted with stiff resistance, consequently making IT management a difficult task (Childs et al, 2005). To overcome the barriers for implementing E learning, a n organization should try and manage these barriers accordingly because they are critical to any organizations general business model and can equally affect the organizations decision making process. 1.2 Research question What are the critical barriers of implementing e-learning system and what is the role of organizational culture in successful implementation of E-learning system? 1.3 Objectives and Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the critical factors which may affect the implementation of e-learning system. Investigating the barriers of implementing e-learning system would help to lower down the barriers in future implementation. Moreover by examining the cultural influence of an organization towards e-learning systems implementation process, it will be easier to identify a complete outline for organizations to implement E Learning system and to make the system work efficiently and successfully. 1.4 Thesis design The structure of the thesis is principally focused on six chapters which include Chapter 1: Introduction/Background The Introduction gives brief overview of the research topic, including the purpose and objectives, problems and research question. Chapter 2: Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Chapter 3: Framework of reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. Chapter 4: Findings This chapter provides frequencies of different barriers for implementing E learning system described by different authors. Chapter 5 Analysis This chapter will describe the analysis based on the findings. Chapter 6: Conclusions This section finally concludes the lessons drawn from the findings 2.0 Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. 2.1 Choice of Topic Fisher (2007, p.31-33) suggested that authors should choose research area according to their interests, so they remain motivated and committed to complete the project. The authors belong to Pakistan, where E-learning system is not much in practiced in organizations. While, e learning system is already in use in Sweden, we found that E-learning system is a proficient tool in learning process. Therefore, it was quite intriguing for us to explore this topic. In addition, we were interested in finding out the barriers for implementation of E-learning system and to investigate the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system. Fisher (2007, p.31-33) urges that chosen topic should be accessible and it is necessary to make sure that quite literature is available for making detail analysis. We are certain that our topic is enough interesting, significant and demanding for all researchers, businesses managers and Information Technology Management students. 2.2 Research Process There are various methodological approaches to carry out research i.e. Realist research, exploratory research, critical realism, standpoint research, action research and phenomenology etc, Fisher (2007, p.15). In addition, Fisher (2007, p.153-155) mentioned two kinds of discoveries e.g. Explorers and Surveyors. A kind of research where an open approach is used with conceptual framework but the authors are not sure about outcomes and results of the work they do, is called exploratory research. On the other hand surveyors discovery approach is pre-structured where surveyors are already inform of the results and out come of their work. According to these concepts our research is exploratory as we are dependent on secondary data. 2.3 Data Collection and source Fisher (2007, p. 45) states that data could be collected from existing databases, through questionnaires, conducting fieldwork or performing case studies as it depends on the kind of research. In this research entire data has been collected from available databases as the research is entirely based on secondary data collection method. Secondary source has been used in this research. The data was extracted from articles, books and websites, magazines, journals and articles with focus on critical barriers to e learning implementation. Fisher stated that (2007, P.158-161) data could be qualitative or quantitative depending on the method of research study. A quantitative approach has been used here in this research. No statistics has been used in this research and as all research has been analyzed by words not figures. 2.4 Access of information Secondary data has extracted from different sources. The required literature has been acquired by searching Mà ¤lardalen Universitys library. Furthermore, we have used online library (ebrary) as well as other librarys database such as Elin, Emerald, Eric and EBSCO for articles and journals, which have helped us to answer our research query. Going through a wide-ranging literature review, twenty five articles were identified that give answer to the research question from distinct angles. To identify the barriers to Implementation of E-learning system, keyword search criteria based on title contained; Ø Barriers of E learning system implementation, Ø Implications of E learning system in organizations, Ø Implementation of E learning system in large organization, Ø Challenges of E learning Implementation, Ø Limitations of E learning System, To describe and analyze the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system in organization, keyword search criteria contained; Ø Cultural issues of E leaning system, Ø Cultural Influence on online Learning, Ø Cultural influence on student learning, Ø Analyzing cultural Influences on E learning Transactional Issue, Ø Cultural difference and influence on E learning, Ø Social and cultural impact on e learning Effectiveness, Ø A cultural Analysis of relearning for developed and developing countries, Ø Cross and Multicultural issues for e learning success, Ø Influence of organizational cultural in E learning, Ø Organizational resistance towards implementing E learning system. 2.5 Data Analysis According to Miles and Huberman (1994) the data analysis consists of three parallel flows of activity: (1) Data reduction, (2) Data display, and (3) Conclusion drawing/verification† (p. 10). Furthermore they suggested that data analysis components could be successfully integrated during data analysis, as it is an iterative and continuous process (Miles and Huberman 1994). They have stated three components of activities that describe analysis which are; First is ‘data reduction that is focused on selection, simplification and transformation of data (Miles and Huberman 1994). This process is applied in qualitative data. The objective of this is data is to help drawing final conclusion and verification. In this study data is taken from the studies where authors cited barriers to implement E-learning with focus on cultural resistance in an organization. Second is ‘data display i.e. data reduced in data reduction needs to be organized that help to draw conclusion easily. In table mentioned below, different factors related to critical barriers to implementation of E-learning system and the role of organizations culture is given below along with the frequency of each factor. Third is the conclusion based on drawing/verifying; describes the possible explanations, causal flows and propositions to be made. Therefore based on the findings and discussed analysis, conclusions would be drawn to signify the influential role of organizations culture towards the implementation process The above model is used for the analysis of this research. Moreover, this analysis emphasizes more on comparing various authors view on to analyze and describe the critical barriers and role of culture to employ E-learning system in organizations. 2.6 Validity and Reliability Validity is defined as â€Å"the degree which researchers have measured what they have set out to measure† (Kumar, 2005) whereas reliability means â€Å"the extent to which another researcher can reach the same conclusion by following the same research process† (Taylor et al., 2006). Several articles have been used to identify the barriers of implementing E learning system and to analyze the role of organizational culture. Besides, frequencies of more influential barriers have been generated to validate the barriers and cultural role in implementation process. 2.7 Method Critique Due to the limitation of time, a limited number of articles have been used to formulate the frequency to identify the critical barriers. It could be better to use more articles to strengthen our research as a number of studies have already been done in this area. However this study will describe and analyze the critical barriers for the implementation of E-learning system related literature and to gain a theoretical background. It was also discovered during analysis of this study that most of the authors mentioned the critical factors with mere repetition with diverse definitions. 3.0 Framework of Reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. 3.1 E-learning 3.1.1 What is E-learning? E-learning can be defined as learning and communication exercises across computers and networks or electronic sources. (Wong, 2007 ; Schank, 2002; Roffe, 2002 Tsai Machado, 2002; Sambrook, 2003; Fry; Wild, Grggs and Downing, 2002) have defined E-learning as â€Å"delivery of training and education via networked interactivity and distribution technologies.†According to Khan (2008), the word e-learning is used for an open, flexible, and diversed-learning environment. â€Å"E-learning can be viewed as an innovative approach for delivering well designed, learner-centered, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyone, anyplace, anytime by utilizing the attributes and resources of various digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open, flexible, and distributed learning environment† (Khan, 2008). In e-learning system Students are able to interact anytime from anywhere with different instructional material (text, sound, pictures, video and so on) through Internet. Furthermore, learners can even communicate with teachers and classmates both individually and as a group discussion with the use of message boards, instant message exchanges and video conferencing. (Al-Ammari and Hamad (2008); Andersson, 2009; Zhang and Zhou, 2003). (Lee, 2006) Therefore, E-learning has been defined variously, learning system using different carrying technologies and techniques like Computer Based Training (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Web-based instruction (WBI), distributed learning (DL), advanced distributed learning (ADL), distance learning, online learning (OL), mobile learning (or m-learning) or remote learning and learning management systems (LMS) (Khan, 2008). For managing learning environment like, registration of learners, scheduling learning resources, controlling and guidance of learning processes and analyzing learners performance are all accomplish in Learning Management System (LMS) (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Brown, 2006). In 1970s and 1980s distance learning started becoming popular and sued to conduct through postal mail but in 1990s the rise of World Wide Web changed the nature distance learning. With the use of this technology learners can get a number of resources from their teachers like discussion forums, multimedia, chat, video conferencing and electronic black boards. These changes which have been brought in distance education are an attempt to provide easier access to students who live very far from universities, who are working or have other reasons for not being able to attend in person. In the US ‘in the academic year 2001-2, five million people took at least one course online, and three million were enrolled in online degree programs (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Kazmer Haythornthwaite, 2005, p.7). It can be seen in these figures that distance education online has become a popular alternative to face-to-face instruction. 3.2 Implementation of E-learning One of the following three approaches is necessary for the implementation of the e-learning system: To strengthen the traditional face-to-face courses with support of new communication technology, enhancement of learning experience with in traditional courses by integration of online activities and delivery of entirely online courses. In this implementation the readiness of some influential factors like budgeting, infrastructure planning, human resource development (experience, skills, knowledge and attitude of the end users) are most common. Uhomoibhi (2006) stated that E-learning initiators, institutions must use and prepare strategies for adoption, diffusion and implementation. For a successful implementation of online environment where learners can actively learn and get support from well-organized approach is mandatory. Processes of planning, designing, development and evaluation are all parts of a successful implementation that could help to lower down the barriers of implementation. An e-learning system can only be successful if it is significant to all stakeholders e.g. instructors, learners; support services staff and the institutions itself. In order for learners to become quickly accustomed to E-learning, it must be made sure that it is easily accessible, efficient, well designed course, affordable, and has a facilitated learning environment. Instructors must feel a sense of accomplishment when learners meet the goals and objectives of the course in a successful way. Technical support staff should feel happy when learners receive reliable services without interruptions. One of the most important factors for institutions is the profit they earn as well as the satisfaction of the learner and a low rate of dropouts (Khan, 2005). A strong foundation is required in order to have an effective implementation of E learning. Aligning and communication are two important factors in implementation of e learning system. It is necessary to make sure the communication is in order. Involvement of key stakeholders at the decision making stage or any other early process is very important. Communication is also important for those who are directly responsible for the implementation; and professionals also suggest a horizontal leadership style so that everyone is responsible for their actions. This includes individuals who are critical to the implementations success which include line, functional and divisional leaders. There should be consistent scheduled meetings with these individuals to discuss the newly arising issues in the project to come up with a solution. Most of the pitfalls of e-learning are tied to technological issues so it is important to involve IT leadership throughout the project to mitigate the problems in implementation process. Creation of helpdesk for reporting of IT related issues is more important. While selecting the vendors it is important to make sure that the vendors have an outstanding and proven record. Strong communication and feedback from vendors is a necessary step for a successful implementation. 3.3 An overview of the critical issues in E-learning implementation Worldwide, E-learning arises as a new paradigm of advance education with a growing rate of 36.5% in the market, but still failures exist. As many companies are moving very fast to the adoption of e-learning in order to reap its benefits but they are facing significant barriers in its implementation and adoption, which leads them to implementation failure. (http://www.citeulike.org/user/jdellano/article/5315881) (Simmons, 2002, p.19). (Mungania, 2003) Hence, to mitigate this failure we have to investigate key factors that encompass different dimensions of an open, flexible and advanced distributed learning environment for diverse learners (Khan, 2005). Literature has mentioned a wide range of factors that can influence the successful implementation of e-learning e.g. some talks about pedagogical issues, faculty issues and organizational issues while some may have discussed about personal issues, cultural issues and some other issues. A broad range of factors that can influence the success of e-learning environments has been mentioned in the literature. However, there is no organized work to characterize collective group of most influential issues or factors, which could be seen as barriers. (Successful wala article) Distinct authors consider different barriers as most influential in implementation of e-learning.Wong (2007) has categorized e-learning limitations in three main areas; technological limitations, personal issues and other limitations. The lack of hardware, limited Internet coverage and low bandwidth are all consider as technological barriers in implementation of e learning. (Wong, 2007 ; Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002; Hiltz, 1997). (Chadha Kumail, 2002, p.28).Roy (1996, p.9) // where u use this reference Personal issues are mostly related to learners and teachers. Teachers should give a complete guidance to the learners about this new and non-traditional system to prepare new learners psychologically (Wong, 2007 ; Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003). For learners the use of new technologies could be a disadvantage or barrier in e learning. So the lack information, communication and technological skills might be barriers to e- learning because learners could get frustrated from this unconventional learning environment.(Wong, 2007 ; Carr, 1999; Hamid, 2002; Angelina, 2002a, p.12) The freedom provided by E-learning could be a disadvantage for the learners as internal motivation and self discipline is required at its maximum which learners may find hard to achieve in order to complete their studies or assignments in time. As (Wong, 2007 ; Kearsley, 2000) Schott et al., 2003; Rivera and Rice, 2002; Abouchedid and Eid, 2004). In e-learning environment students are usually supposed to communicate in a text based environment so learners poor writing  ¨skills might be a disadvantage in e learning. Therefore, the inability of communicating efficiently of learners could create misunderstandings (Wong, 2007; Smith Rupp, 2004). Others limitations: e-learning provides 247 access. This infinite work might be a disadvantage for learners and particularly for teachers. This unlimited work could over stress teachers, resulting in a low quality services from instructors.(Abdou Elmulti, 2002;. Dringus, 2003; Newton, 2003; Kathawala, Schifter, 2004). Poor course design could appear a major barrier in implementation of e learning as it could frustrate the learners and teachers. (Young Bal, 2003; Smulders, 2003; Howell, Williams Lindsay 2003; Gordon, Young Bal, 2003; Svensson, 2004; Ivergard Hunt, 2005;). Cronje (2009) sees some influential barriers such as student barriers are related to lack of financial support from their families and cooperation among peers and from teachers (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Faculty barriers the lack of funds is the most important one. Institutes attitude towards the lecturers that some time seems less prominent among their peers is considered another important barrier in successful e learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Organizational barriers poor funding for three major costs areas are considered more crucial barriers e.g. Initial costs of the implementation process, maintenance and up gradation. Course barriers course design is regarded as most important one. Poor course design is one of reasons of inferiority of Distance learning. Conversion of teaching context in to electronic shape could not add any value to e learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997) Boondao et al (2008) mentioned, â€Å"It is not possible, in the view of some scholars, to create a model of the good teacher without taking issues of culture and context into account†. The influence of culture cannot be ignored in successful implementation of e learning. Considering learners from different culture e.g. east and west, learners from both cultures have particular approaches and styles of learning. Therefore, lack of consideration of cultural issues during designing could prove as a barrier in successful implementation of e learning (Boondao et al, 2008). 3.4 Discussing the different critical barriers 3.4.1 A Framework for E-Learning These days an escalating amount of companies are implementing E-learning System (Mungania, 2003).. But as these companies try to take advantages of E-learning to gain strategic and competitive advantages in absolute urgency, there are significant number barriers to the implementation of E-learning come across to halt them (Simmons, 2002, p.19 and Mungania, (2003). As E-learning barriers are diverse and may include as personal, organizational, situational, instructional, and technological barriers. (Mungania, 2003) Moreover khans E- learning framework provides details on critical issues which may come cross E learning implementation process. Khans E-learning framework composed of eight dimensions: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation. 3.1 Institutional Issues Institutions need to build a complete plan for the successful implantation of E learning system (Khan 2005, p.23).Moreover Childs et al (2005) stated that institution should focus on cultural aspects for the implementation process of E learning system which have a significant effect upon the success of E learning process (Cronje,2009). E-learning needs to be integrated to all departments of the institution therefore a strong comment needed from the institution and the trainers Childs et al (2005). Moreover, E-learning implementation plan must be fully aligned with the institutions missions and strategic plans (Galusha , 1997; Belanger and Jordan, 2000). Therefore e-learning implementation process is paradigm shift for the institution as a whole which includes learners, instructors, administrators, technical and other support services staff (Romiszowski, 2004). To support institutions in strategic planning, change management and process development that are necessary to highlight their embedding process and issues which may occur in their organization (Childs et al (2005) and Khan 2005,p.23). Khan has divided institution issue into three parts administrative affairs, Academic affairs and Student services (Khan 2005,p. 24 ). Administrative affairs which includes organization and change (implementation of E learning system), budgeting and ROI , course information catalog, financial aid, course schedule, tuition and fees, registration and payment, information technology services, instructional design, whereas Academic affairs issues such as policies, instructional quality, faculty and staff support, intellectual property rights and so on (Khan 2005,p. 24 ). Moreover Student services deals with student support services for e-learning effectiveness. Some of the institutional related issues are mentioned below: Needs Assessment Needs analysis will assist institutions to examine the needs for their e-learning plan and establish its e-learning goals. (Khan 2005,p. 24 , Sue Childs et al.2005) Readiness Assessment Readiness Assessment critical factors should be considered are e-learning must be Open, flexible and distributed. There are three basic types of readiness: Financial Readiness which defines whether its e-learning initiative investment importance, Infrastructural readiness readiness which includes human resource readiness, equipment readiness, and technological skill readiness and cultural which are preferences of Learners instructors and the existing learning culture (Khan 2005, p.25). Organizational change E-learning engages a change of model to some level, a change in how you deal with knowledge and its information in organization (Khan 2005, p. 26 and Sue Childs et al.2005). Budgeting and return on investment Institutions should do costing before, during, and after the implementation of e-learning so that they are able to analyze return on investment and benefits of e Learning (Romiszowski, 2004 and Khan 2005, p.28-29). Program and course information catalog Institution should provide precise information about their courses, schedule and fees etc (Mungania 2003, Khan 2005, p.30). Financial Aid Financial aid services should be provided to support learners by using technological and human support services (Khan 2005, p.32). Policies Institutional e-learning policies must be communicated to all groups including instructors, learners, and support staff (Khan 2005, p. 35). Instructional Quality Instructional quality in e-learning creates meaningful learning environment (Khan 2005,p. 35, Muilenburg and Berge (2005), Gulatee and Combes (2007), Lum (2006), Park and Choi (2009). Faculty and Staff support For effective e learning instructor, faculty members as well as supporting staff should receive proper training to support the learners (Khan 2005, p.41). Intellectual property rights Institutions must give information to the learners, as well instructors about intellectual property rights (Khan 2005, p. 39). Learning Skills Development Well-designed learners guide can help those learners, supporting staff how have no experience with open, distributed and flexible learning environment which includes Library, Tutorial Services, and Support Network (Khan 2005, p. 39); ), Wong (2007). 3.2Management issues (Magalhaes, 2008) stated that lack of management support is number one barriers towards successful implementation of E learning system in institution. Management issues of e-learning in organization ref Barriers to Implementing E-learning System in Organizations Barriers to Implementing E-learning System in Organizations 1.0 General introduction/background This chapter deals with general introduction and the background of the research area. It also contains the problem statement, objectives/purpose, research question, and the structure of the thesis. In todays world of globalization, knowledge and learning is considered most vital element for acquiring competitive advantage (Longworth and Davies, 1996). For gaining competitive advantage firms and institutions are becoming more knowledge intensive, therefore they concentrate on managing and sharing knowledge to gain significant advantage of this knowledge (Hertog and Sluijs, 1995).Traditional education style has remained consistent without any changes been made to the system. This has enabled a large number of creative thinkers to ponder other possible educational approaches that could benefit the system (Gà ¼nes, 2008). On the other hand, technology is necessary in order to conquer, but it also a necessity to remain in competition. All the sectors, whether it is primary, manufacturing or tertiary, all of them have been forced to accept technology to become innovative and efficient (Gà ¼nes, 2008). Technology has not only radically changed the ways and methods of our works but is now beginning to transform the education system (Webster and Murphy, 2008).With the use of internet technologies, firms and institutions have outstanding opportunities to deliver education and different training techniques through strategic use of internet technologies (Lee, 2006; Kaohsiung; Taiwan, 2006). The use of Internet technologies combined with suitable learning strategies assists to provide an open, flexible and dynamic learning environment. As a result many corporations, government agencies and academic institutions worldwide have increased the use of internet and educational technologies to deliver instructions and provide training. This innovative approach of delivering information and education is known as E-learning (Khan, 2008). E-learning can be simply defined as the way of learning which delivers its contents through World Wide Web (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Sharifabadi defined e-lear ning as â€Å"the term used to describe teaching and learning resources or experiences that is, in some way, delivered electronically†. (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Sharifabadi, 2006, p.391). E-learning is a way of interaction through electronic mediums, mainly computers, by using videos, photos, texts and sounds for different educational purposes (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). E-learning system creates a learning opportunity for the convenience of those who dont have the opportunity to be physically available due to various reasons (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Werry, 2002). Hence, during the late 1990s and early 2000 many virtual universities were established and more universities were offering online courses, but mixed results of the e learning systems were encountered (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Different researches have pointed out many barriers in e learnings implementation, which lead to its failure. For example technological infrastructure, course content quality, finance support, learners computing skills, staff training, management support and organizations culture resistance (Romiszowski, 2003, Childs et al, 2005, Muilenburg and Berge, 2005). Organizations cultural resistance is considered as the most influential barrier in e learnings implementation process. The cultures resistance or resistance from the potential users negatively affects the implementation process. Unwillingness of the employees can create major problems for the managers and can lead to the system failure (Shields and Young, 1989, p. 22). Employees resistance and avoiding of the use of required procedures and rules could lead the system to failure even if it has been developed perfectly and is ready to use (Malmi, 1997, p. 475). In this instant the managers cannot gain full benefits of the new system unless they can create a change in the employees attitude (Yates, 1997, p. 164). Cultural differences among peers could create many problems in implementation of e learning system. Therefore, if the cultural issues are overlooked during implementation, their ignorance could act as a vital barrier in e learnings success. (AL-Hunaiyyan et al, 2008; Gujar and Sonone, 2004) 1.1 Problem statement There are different articles and books available in the market which mention about the usefulness and advantages of E learning. Web-based learning is a new medium of information technology; researchers have mentioned many different factors which act as barriers towards implementing E-learning system (Ngai et al., 2007). There are different factors cited by various authors which exist in their research papers that can help us to identify critical barriers. In addition, we are interested in finding out, to which extent an organization is dependent on the role of its culture, and how culture can lead to success or failure of the E-learning system. It should be noted that culture has a great impact in organizations and are important when decision making is involved in IT management. In this regard, an organization is said to be confronted with stiff resistance, consequently making IT management a difficult task (Childs et al, 2005). To overcome the barriers for implementing E learning, a n organization should try and manage these barriers accordingly because they are critical to any organizations general business model and can equally affect the organizations decision making process. 1.2 Research question What are the critical barriers of implementing e-learning system and what is the role of organizational culture in successful implementation of E-learning system? 1.3 Objectives and Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the critical factors which may affect the implementation of e-learning system. Investigating the barriers of implementing e-learning system would help to lower down the barriers in future implementation. Moreover by examining the cultural influence of an organization towards e-learning systems implementation process, it will be easier to identify a complete outline for organizations to implement E Learning system and to make the system work efficiently and successfully. 1.4 Thesis design The structure of the thesis is principally focused on six chapters which include Chapter 1: Introduction/Background The Introduction gives brief overview of the research topic, including the purpose and objectives, problems and research question. Chapter 2: Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Chapter 3: Framework of reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. Chapter 4: Findings This chapter provides frequencies of different barriers for implementing E learning system described by different authors. Chapter 5 Analysis This chapter will describe the analysis based on the findings. Chapter 6: Conclusions This section finally concludes the lessons drawn from the findings 2.0 Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. 2.1 Choice of Topic Fisher (2007, p.31-33) suggested that authors should choose research area according to their interests, so they remain motivated and committed to complete the project. The authors belong to Pakistan, where E-learning system is not much in practiced in organizations. While, e learning system is already in use in Sweden, we found that E-learning system is a proficient tool in learning process. Therefore, it was quite intriguing for us to explore this topic. In addition, we were interested in finding out the barriers for implementation of E-learning system and to investigate the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system. Fisher (2007, p.31-33) urges that chosen topic should be accessible and it is necessary to make sure that quite literature is available for making detail analysis. We are certain that our topic is enough interesting, significant and demanding for all researchers, businesses managers and Information Technology Management students. 2.2 Research Process There are various methodological approaches to carry out research i.e. Realist research, exploratory research, critical realism, standpoint research, action research and phenomenology etc, Fisher (2007, p.15). In addition, Fisher (2007, p.153-155) mentioned two kinds of discoveries e.g. Explorers and Surveyors. A kind of research where an open approach is used with conceptual framework but the authors are not sure about outcomes and results of the work they do, is called exploratory research. On the other hand surveyors discovery approach is pre-structured where surveyors are already inform of the results and out come of their work. According to these concepts our research is exploratory as we are dependent on secondary data. 2.3 Data Collection and source Fisher (2007, p. 45) states that data could be collected from existing databases, through questionnaires, conducting fieldwork or performing case studies as it depends on the kind of research. In this research entire data has been collected from available databases as the research is entirely based on secondary data collection method. Secondary source has been used in this research. The data was extracted from articles, books and websites, magazines, journals and articles with focus on critical barriers to e learning implementation. Fisher stated that (2007, P.158-161) data could be qualitative or quantitative depending on the method of research study. A quantitative approach has been used here in this research. No statistics has been used in this research and as all research has been analyzed by words not figures. 2.4 Access of information Secondary data has extracted from different sources. The required literature has been acquired by searching Mà ¤lardalen Universitys library. Furthermore, we have used online library (ebrary) as well as other librarys database such as Elin, Emerald, Eric and EBSCO for articles and journals, which have helped us to answer our research query. Going through a wide-ranging literature review, twenty five articles were identified that give answer to the research question from distinct angles. To identify the barriers to Implementation of E-learning system, keyword search criteria based on title contained; Ø Barriers of E learning system implementation, Ø Implications of E learning system in organizations, Ø Implementation of E learning system in large organization, Ø Challenges of E learning Implementation, Ø Limitations of E learning System, To describe and analyze the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system in organization, keyword search criteria contained; Ø Cultural issues of E leaning system, Ø Cultural Influence on online Learning, Ø Cultural influence on student learning, Ø Analyzing cultural Influences on E learning Transactional Issue, Ø Cultural difference and influence on E learning, Ø Social and cultural impact on e learning Effectiveness, Ø A cultural Analysis of relearning for developed and developing countries, Ø Cross and Multicultural issues for e learning success, Ø Influence of organizational cultural in E learning, Ø Organizational resistance towards implementing E learning system. 2.5 Data Analysis According to Miles and Huberman (1994) the data analysis consists of three parallel flows of activity: (1) Data reduction, (2) Data display, and (3) Conclusion drawing/verification† (p. 10). Furthermore they suggested that data analysis components could be successfully integrated during data analysis, as it is an iterative and continuous process (Miles and Huberman 1994). They have stated three components of activities that describe analysis which are; First is ‘data reduction that is focused on selection, simplification and transformation of data (Miles and Huberman 1994). This process is applied in qualitative data. The objective of this is data is to help drawing final conclusion and verification. In this study data is taken from the studies where authors cited barriers to implement E-learning with focus on cultural resistance in an organization. Second is ‘data display i.e. data reduced in data reduction needs to be organized that help to draw conclusion easily. In table mentioned below, different factors related to critical barriers to implementation of E-learning system and the role of organizations culture is given below along with the frequency of each factor. Third is the conclusion based on drawing/verifying; describes the possible explanations, causal flows and propositions to be made. Therefore based on the findings and discussed analysis, conclusions would be drawn to signify the influential role of organizations culture towards the implementation process The above model is used for the analysis of this research. Moreover, this analysis emphasizes more on comparing various authors view on to analyze and describe the critical barriers and role of culture to employ E-learning system in organizations. 2.6 Validity and Reliability Validity is defined as â€Å"the degree which researchers have measured what they have set out to measure† (Kumar, 2005) whereas reliability means â€Å"the extent to which another researcher can reach the same conclusion by following the same research process† (Taylor et al., 2006). Several articles have been used to identify the barriers of implementing E learning system and to analyze the role of organizational culture. Besides, frequencies of more influential barriers have been generated to validate the barriers and cultural role in implementation process. 2.7 Method Critique Due to the limitation of time, a limited number of articles have been used to formulate the frequency to identify the critical barriers. It could be better to use more articles to strengthen our research as a number of studies have already been done in this area. However this study will describe and analyze the critical barriers for the implementation of E-learning system related literature and to gain a theoretical background. It was also discovered during analysis of this study that most of the authors mentioned the critical factors with mere repetition with diverse definitions. 3.0 Framework of Reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. 3.1 E-learning 3.1.1 What is E-learning? E-learning can be defined as learning and communication exercises across computers and networks or electronic sources. (Wong, 2007 ; Schank, 2002; Roffe, 2002 Tsai Machado, 2002; Sambrook, 2003; Fry; Wild, Grggs and Downing, 2002) have defined E-learning as â€Å"delivery of training and education via networked interactivity and distribution technologies.†According to Khan (2008), the word e-learning is used for an open, flexible, and diversed-learning environment. â€Å"E-learning can be viewed as an innovative approach for delivering well designed, learner-centered, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyone, anyplace, anytime by utilizing the attributes and resources of various digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open, flexible, and distributed learning environment† (Khan, 2008). In e-learning system Students are able to interact anytime from anywhere with different instructional material (text, sound, pictures, video and so on) through Internet. Furthermore, learners can even communicate with teachers and classmates both individually and as a group discussion with the use of message boards, instant message exchanges and video conferencing. (Al-Ammari and Hamad (2008); Andersson, 2009; Zhang and Zhou, 2003). (Lee, 2006) Therefore, E-learning has been defined variously, learning system using different carrying technologies and techniques like Computer Based Training (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Web-based instruction (WBI), distributed learning (DL), advanced distributed learning (ADL), distance learning, online learning (OL), mobile learning (or m-learning) or remote learning and learning management systems (LMS) (Khan, 2008). For managing learning environment like, registration of learners, scheduling learning resources, controlling and guidance of learning processes and analyzing learners performance are all accomplish in Learning Management System (LMS) (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Brown, 2006). In 1970s and 1980s distance learning started becoming popular and sued to conduct through postal mail but in 1990s the rise of World Wide Web changed the nature distance learning. With the use of this technology learners can get a number of resources from their teachers like discussion forums, multimedia, chat, video conferencing and electronic black boards. These changes which have been brought in distance education are an attempt to provide easier access to students who live very far from universities, who are working or have other reasons for not being able to attend in person. In the US ‘in the academic year 2001-2, five million people took at least one course online, and three million were enrolled in online degree programs (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Kazmer Haythornthwaite, 2005, p.7). It can be seen in these figures that distance education online has become a popular alternative to face-to-face instruction. 3.2 Implementation of E-learning One of the following three approaches is necessary for the implementation of the e-learning system: To strengthen the traditional face-to-face courses with support of new communication technology, enhancement of learning experience with in traditional courses by integration of online activities and delivery of entirely online courses. In this implementation the readiness of some influential factors like budgeting, infrastructure planning, human resource development (experience, skills, knowledge and attitude of the end users) are most common. Uhomoibhi (2006) stated that E-learning initiators, institutions must use and prepare strategies for adoption, diffusion and implementation. For a successful implementation of online environment where learners can actively learn and get support from well-organized approach is mandatory. Processes of planning, designing, development and evaluation are all parts of a successful implementation that could help to lower down the barriers of implementation. An e-learning system can only be successful if it is significant to all stakeholders e.g. instructors, learners; support services staff and the institutions itself. In order for learners to become quickly accustomed to E-learning, it must be made sure that it is easily accessible, efficient, well designed course, affordable, and has a facilitated learning environment. Instructors must feel a sense of accomplishment when learners meet the goals and objectives of the course in a successful way. Technical support staff should feel happy when learners receive reliable services without interruptions. One of the most important factors for institutions is the profit they earn as well as the satisfaction of the learner and a low rate of dropouts (Khan, 2005). A strong foundation is required in order to have an effective implementation of E learning. Aligning and communication are two important factors in implementation of e learning system. It is necessary to make sure the communication is in order. Involvement of key stakeholders at the decision making stage or any other early process is very important. Communication is also important for those who are directly responsible for the implementation; and professionals also suggest a horizontal leadership style so that everyone is responsible for their actions. This includes individuals who are critical to the implementations success which include line, functional and divisional leaders. There should be consistent scheduled meetings with these individuals to discuss the newly arising issues in the project to come up with a solution. Most of the pitfalls of e-learning are tied to technological issues so it is important to involve IT leadership throughout the project to mitigate the problems in implementation process. Creation of helpdesk for reporting of IT related issues is more important. While selecting the vendors it is important to make sure that the vendors have an outstanding and proven record. Strong communication and feedback from vendors is a necessary step for a successful implementation. 3.3 An overview of the critical issues in E-learning implementation Worldwide, E-learning arises as a new paradigm of advance education with a growing rate of 36.5% in the market, but still failures exist. As many companies are moving very fast to the adoption of e-learning in order to reap its benefits but they are facing significant barriers in its implementation and adoption, which leads them to implementation failure. (http://www.citeulike.org/user/jdellano/article/5315881) (Simmons, 2002, p.19). (Mungania, 2003) Hence, to mitigate this failure we have to investigate key factors that encompass different dimensions of an open, flexible and advanced distributed learning environment for diverse learners (Khan, 2005). Literature has mentioned a wide range of factors that can influence the successful implementation of e-learning e.g. some talks about pedagogical issues, faculty issues and organizational issues while some may have discussed about personal issues, cultural issues and some other issues. A broad range of factors that can influence the success of e-learning environments has been mentioned in the literature. However, there is no organized work to characterize collective group of most influential issues or factors, which could be seen as barriers. (Successful wala article) Distinct authors consider different barriers as most influential in implementation of e-learning.Wong (2007) has categorized e-learning limitations in three main areas; technological limitations, personal issues and other limitations. The lack of hardware, limited Internet coverage and low bandwidth are all consider as technological barriers in implementation of e learning. (Wong, 2007 ; Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002; Hiltz, 1997). (Chadha Kumail, 2002, p.28).Roy (1996, p.9) // where u use this reference Personal issues are mostly related to learners and teachers. Teachers should give a complete guidance to the learners about this new and non-traditional system to prepare new learners psychologically (Wong, 2007 ; Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003). For learners the use of new technologies could be a disadvantage or barrier in e learning. So the lack information, communication and technological skills might be barriers to e- learning because learners could get frustrated from this unconventional learning environment.(Wong, 2007 ; Carr, 1999; Hamid, 2002; Angelina, 2002a, p.12) The freedom provided by E-learning could be a disadvantage for the learners as internal motivation and self discipline is required at its maximum which learners may find hard to achieve in order to complete their studies or assignments in time. As (Wong, 2007 ; Kearsley, 2000) Schott et al., 2003; Rivera and Rice, 2002; Abouchedid and Eid, 2004). In e-learning environment students are usually supposed to communicate in a text based environment so learners poor writing  ¨skills might be a disadvantage in e learning. Therefore, the inability of communicating efficiently of learners could create misunderstandings (Wong, 2007; Smith Rupp, 2004). Others limitations: e-learning provides 247 access. This infinite work might be a disadvantage for learners and particularly for teachers. This unlimited work could over stress teachers, resulting in a low quality services from instructors.(Abdou Elmulti, 2002;. Dringus, 2003; Newton, 2003; Kathawala, Schifter, 2004). Poor course design could appear a major barrier in implementation of e learning as it could frustrate the learners and teachers. (Young Bal, 2003; Smulders, 2003; Howell, Williams Lindsay 2003; Gordon, Young Bal, 2003; Svensson, 2004; Ivergard Hunt, 2005;). Cronje (2009) sees some influential barriers such as student barriers are related to lack of financial support from their families and cooperation among peers and from teachers (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Faculty barriers the lack of funds is the most important one. Institutes attitude towards the lecturers that some time seems less prominent among their peers is considered another important barrier in successful e learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Organizational barriers poor funding for three major costs areas are considered more crucial barriers e.g. Initial costs of the implementation process, maintenance and up gradation. Course barriers course design is regarded as most important one. Poor course design is one of reasons of inferiority of Distance learning. Conversion of teaching context in to electronic shape could not add any value to e learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997) Boondao et al (2008) mentioned, â€Å"It is not possible, in the view of some scholars, to create a model of the good teacher without taking issues of culture and context into account†. The influence of culture cannot be ignored in successful implementation of e learning. Considering learners from different culture e.g. east and west, learners from both cultures have particular approaches and styles of learning. Therefore, lack of consideration of cultural issues during designing could prove as a barrier in successful implementation of e learning (Boondao et al, 2008). 3.4 Discussing the different critical barriers 3.4.1 A Framework for E-Learning These days an escalating amount of companies are implementing E-learning System (Mungania, 2003).. But as these companies try to take advantages of E-learning to gain strategic and competitive advantages in absolute urgency, there are significant number barriers to the implementation of E-learning come across to halt them (Simmons, 2002, p.19 and Mungania, (2003). As E-learning barriers are diverse and may include as personal, organizational, situational, instructional, and technological barriers. (Mungania, 2003) Moreover khans E- learning framework provides details on critical issues which may come cross E learning implementation process. Khans E-learning framework composed of eight dimensions: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation. 3.1 Institutional Issues Institutions need to build a complete plan for the successful implantation of E learning system (Khan 2005, p.23).Moreover Childs et al (2005) stated that institution should focus on cultural aspects for the implementation process of E learning system which have a significant effect upon the success of E learning process (Cronje,2009). E-learning needs to be integrated to all departments of the institution therefore a strong comment needed from the institution and the trainers Childs et al (2005). Moreover, E-learning implementation plan must be fully aligned with the institutions missions and strategic plans (Galusha , 1997; Belanger and Jordan, 2000). Therefore e-learning implementation process is paradigm shift for the institution as a whole which includes learners, instructors, administrators, technical and other support services staff (Romiszowski, 2004). To support institutions in strategic planning, change management and process development that are necessary to highlight their embedding process and issues which may occur in their organization (Childs et al (2005) and Khan 2005,p.23). Khan has divided institution issue into three parts administrative affairs, Academic affairs and Student services (Khan 2005,p. 24 ). Administrative affairs which includes organization and change (implementation of E learning system), budgeting and ROI , course information catalog, financial aid, course schedule, tuition and fees, registration and payment, information technology services, instructional design, whereas Academic affairs issues such as policies, instructional quality, faculty and staff support, intellectual property rights and so on (Khan 2005,p. 24 ). Moreover Student services deals with student support services for e-learning effectiveness. Some of the institutional related issues are mentioned below: Needs Assessment Needs analysis will assist institutions to examine the needs for their e-learning plan and establish its e-learning goals. (Khan 2005,p. 24 , Sue Childs et al.2005) Readiness Assessment Readiness Assessment critical factors should be considered are e-learning must be Open, flexible and distributed. There are three basic types of readiness: Financial Readiness which defines whether its e-learning initiative investment importance, Infrastructural readiness readiness which includes human resource readiness, equipment readiness, and technological skill readiness and cultural which are preferences of Learners instructors and the existing learning culture (Khan 2005, p.25). Organizational change E-learning engages a change of model to some level, a change in how you deal with knowledge and its information in organization (Khan 2005, p. 26 and Sue Childs et al.2005). Budgeting and return on investment Institutions should do costing before, during, and after the implementation of e-learning so that they are able to analyze return on investment and benefits of e Learning (Romiszowski, 2004 and Khan 2005, p.28-29). Program and course information catalog Institution should provide precise information about their courses, schedule and fees etc (Mungania 2003, Khan 2005, p.30). Financial Aid Financial aid services should be provided to support learners by using technological and human support services (Khan 2005, p.32). Policies Institutional e-learning policies must be communicated to all groups including instructors, learners, and support staff (Khan 2005, p. 35). Instructional Quality Instructional quality in e-learning creates meaningful learning environment (Khan 2005,p. 35, Muilenburg and Berge (2005), Gulatee and Combes (2007), Lum (2006), Park and Choi (2009). Faculty and Staff support For effective e learning instructor, faculty members as well as supporting staff should receive proper training to support the learners (Khan 2005, p.41). Intellectual property rights Institutions must give information to the learners, as well instructors about intellectual property rights (Khan 2005, p. 39). Learning Skills Development Well-designed learners guide can help those learners, supporting staff how have no experience with open, distributed and flexible learning environment which includes Library, Tutorial Services, and Support Network (Khan 2005, p. 39); ), Wong (2007). 3.2Management issues (Magalhaes, 2008) stated that lack of management support is number one barriers towards successful implementation of E learning system in institution. Management issues of e-learning in organization ref

Pidgins and Creoles Essay

A.1 THE DEFINITION OF PIDGIN The etymology of pidgin is uncertain. The Oxford English Dictionary derives it from the English word business as pronounced in Chinese Pidgin English, which was of course used for transacting business. Other possible sources derived pidjom ‘exchange, trade, redemption; a Chinese pronunciation of the Portuguese word ocupaà §Ãƒ £o ‘business’; or a South Seas pronunciation of English beach as beachee, from the location where the language was often used (Mà ¼hlhà ¤usler, in Holm, 2004). A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but is a contact language. That is, it is the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so. Very often too, that situation is one in which there is an imbalance of power among the languages as the speakers of one language dominate the speakers of the other languages economically and socially. A highly codified language often accompanies that dominant position. A pidgin is therefore sometimes regarded as a ‘reduced’ variety of a ‘normal’ language, i.e., one of the aforementioned dominant languages, with simplification of the grammar and vocabulary of that language, considerable phonological variation, and an admixture of local vocabulary to meet the special needs of the contact group (Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 61). According to Holm (2004, pp. 4–5) a pidgin is a reduced language that results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in common; it evolves when they need some means of verbal communication, perhaps for trade, but no group learns the native language of any other group for social reasons that may include lack of trust or close contact. Usually those with less power (speakers of substrate languages) are more accommodating and use words from the language of those with more power (the superstrate), although the mea ning, form and use of these words may be influenced by the substrate languages. When dealing with the other groups, the superstrate speakers adopt many of these changes to make themselves more readily understood and no longer try to speak as they do within their own group. Winford (in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 63) points out that ‘pidginization is really a complex  combination of different processes of change, including reduction and simplification of input materials, internal innovation, and regularization of structure, with L1 influence also playing a role.’ Pidgin is words thrown out, there is no structure, and usually it is not long lasting. However, adults who learn pidgin usually speak it for the rest of their lives, and consequently, they do not develop grammar. A pidgin is a restricted language which is used to communicate between two social groups of which one is in a more dominant position than the other. It involves situations in which a population speaks several different languages and is required to communicate on a regular basis, but none of the languages of the population has primacy over the others. This situation is often found where multiple societies trade or where slave populations from multiple locations are brought into one area. The speakers create a mutual language using words from the speakers’ mother tongues and an extremely flexible, simplified grammar. Most linguists do not consider a pidgin to be a full-fledged language, but something that is used together due to circumstances and omitted when it is no longer needed. Todd (2005, pp. 17) mention there are various theories about the origin of pidgins which have been proposed in the last hundred years or so. These can be presented as a basic group of five theories which show a degree of overlap; note that a mixture of origins is also a possibility which should also be considered. 1.The Baby-Talk Theory At the end of the last century Charles Leland, when discussing China coast pidgin English, noted that there were many similarities with the speech of children such as the following features: a.High percentage of content words with a correspondingly low number of function words. b.Little morphological marking. c.Word classes more flexible than in adult language (free conversion) d.Contrasts in area of pronouns greatly reduced. e.Number of inflections minimised Later linguists, notably Jespersen and Bloomfield, maintained that the characteristics of pidgins result from ‘imperfect mastery of a language which in its initial stage, in the child with its first language and in the  grown-up with a second language learnt by imperfect methods, leads to a superficial knowledge of the most indispensable word, with total disregard of grammar’ (Jespersen 1922: 234). The evaluative nature of such views would be rejected by linguists today. 2.Independent Parallel Development Theory This view maintains that the obvious similarities between the world’s pidgins and creoles arose on independent but parallel lines due to the fact that they all are derived from languages of Indo-European stock and, in the case of the Atlantic varieties, due to their sharing a common West African substratum. Furthermore, scholars like Robert Hall specify that the similar social and physical conditions under which pidgins arose were responsible for the development of similar linguistic structures. 3.Nautical Jargon Theory As early as 1938 the American linguist John Reinecke noted the possible influence of nautical jargon on pidgins. It is obvious that on many of the original voyages of discovery to the developing world many nationalities were represented among the crews of the ships. This fact led to the development of a core vocabulary of nautical items and a simplified grammar (at least as regards English). Later pidgins show many of these lexical items irrespective of where the language varieties are spoken. Thus the word capsise turns up with the meaning ‘turn over’ or ‘spill’ in both West Atlantic and Pacific pidgins. So do the words heave, hoist, hail, galley, cargo. One of the shortcomings of this otherwise attractive theory is that it does not help to account for the many structural affinities between pidgins which arose from different European languages. 4.Monogenetic/Relexification Theory According to this view all pidgins can be traced back to a single proto-pidgin, a 15th century Portuguese pidgin which was itself probably a relic of the medieval lingua franca (also known as sabir from the Portuguese word for ‘know’) which was the common means of communication among the Crusaders and traders in the Mediterranean area. Lingua franca survived longest on the North African coast and is attested from Algeria and Tunesia as late as the 19th century. The theory maintains that when the Portuguese  first sailed down the west coast of Africa in the 15th century they would have used their form of lingua franca (sabir). Afterwards in the 16th and 17th centuries when the Portuguese influence in Africa declined, the vocabulary of the then established pidgins would have been replaced by that of the new colonial language which was dominant in the area, say English or French. As the Portuguese were among the first traders in India and South East Asia a similar situation can be assumed to have obtained: the vocabulary of the original Portuguese pidgin was replaced by that of a later European language. Note that with this theory the grammatical structure of pidgins would not have been effected by the switch in vocabulary (this is what is meant by the term relexification). Thus the obvious similarity in structure of all pidgins would go back to the grammar of the proto-pidgin coming from the Mediterranean area. What this theory does not explain is why the structure (analytic) should be of the type it is. Furthermore there are a number of marginal pidgins (Russenorsk, Eskimo Trade Jargon) which cannot conceivably be connected with Portuguese and which are nonetheless analytic in structure just as the pidgins based on the main European colonial languages are. 5.Universalist Theory This is the most recent view on the origin of pidgins and has elements in common with the other theories. However, the distinguishing mark of this theory is that it sees the similarities as due to universal tendencies among humans to create languages of a similar type, i.e. an analytic language with a simple phonology, an SVO syntax with little or no subordination or other sentence complexities, and with a lexicon which makes maximum use of polysemy (and devices such as reduplication) operating from a limited core vocabulary. To put it in technical terms, a creole will be expected to have unmarked values for linguistic parameters, e.g. with the parameter pro-drop, whereby the personal pronoun is not obligatory with verb forms (cf. Italian capisco ‘I understand’), the unmarked setting is for no pro-drop to be allowed and indeed this is the situation in all pidgins and creoles, a positive value being something which may appear later with the rise of a rich morphology. A.2 THE DEFINITION OF CREOLE The origin of the term creole is more certain. Latin creAre ‘to create’ became Portuguese criar ‘to raise (e.g. a child)’, whence the past participle criado ‘(a person) raised; a servant born into one’s household’. Crioulo, with a diminutive suffix, came to mean an African slave born in the New World in Brazilian usage. The word’s meaning was then extended to include Europeans born in the New World. The word finally came to refer to the customs and speech of Africans and Europeans born in the New World. It was later borrowed as Spanish criollo, French crà ©ole, Dutch creools and English creole (Holm, 2004, pp. 9) Just like a pidgin, a creole has no simple relationship to the usually standardized language with which it is associated. However, speakers of creoles, like speakers of pidgins, may well feel that they speak something less than normal languages because of the way they and others view those languages when they compare them with other languages. Winford (in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 63) points out that creolization involves expansion of the morphology and syntax, regularization of the phonology, deliberate increase in the number of functions in which the language is used, and development of a rational and stable system for increasing vocabulary. But even though the processes are different, it is still not always clear whether we are talking about a pidgin, an expanded pidgin, or a creole in a certain situation. For example, the terms Hawaiian Pidgin English and Hawaiian Creole English may be used by even the same creolist (Bickerton, in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 64) to describe the same variety. Likewise, Tok Pisin is sometimes called a pidgin and sometimes a creole. A creole has a jargon or a pidgin in its ancestry; it is spoken natively by an entire speech community, often one whose ancestors were displaced geographically so that their ties with their original language and sociocultural identity were partly broken. Such social conditions were often the result of slavery. The term ‘creole’ is now mainly refer to languages which derive from pidgins and which, in many instances, share most of their vocabulary to other languages. A creole language differs from a pidgin language by the fact that it is a native language for the majority of its speakers. Vocabulary is extensively borrowed from other languages, but the grammar often shares few traits with the languages that contributed vocabulary. Grammar and syntax are as fully developed as any other  long-established tongue. From those definitions, we can say that creole is the structured pidgin. B.THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT FROM PIDGIN TO CREOLE Originally, by the definition, all pidgins were restricted with regard to user and use. In the early stages they would have had small vocabularies and few syntactic rules; they would have been capable of dealing with only a limited range of subjects, with commands, yes/no questions, and with the simplest of explanations. They would have utilized gesture to reinforce or clarify meanings and they would have proved inadequate for sustained conversation. From these origins they developed either as extended pidgins or as creoles and became capable of expressing the views and beliefs of their users, became capable of permitting intergroup communication in areas where it had not existed before, became capable of sustaining a considerable literature. Not every pidgin eventually becomes a creole, i.e., undergoes the process of creolization. In fact, very few do. Most pidgins are lingua francas, existing to meet temporary local needs. They are spoken by people who use another language or other languages to serve most of their needs and the needs of their children. If a pidgin is no longer needed, it dies out. It may also be the case that the pidgin in a particular area must constantly be ‘reinvented’. Creolization occurs only when a pidgin for some reason becomes the variety of language that children must use in situations in which use of a ‘full’ language is effectively denied them. A creole is the native language of some of its speakers. Professor Loreto Todd (2005, pp. 32 – 40) illustrate the creolization into four phases. Here is the brief description: a.Phase 1 : Marginal Contact This phase would have involved casual and unsustained contact between English speakers and the local people. From such contact a marginal pidgin evolves; capable, with the help of gestures, of communicating physical needs and trading arrangements, etc. A marginal pidgin is inadequate for more than the most rudimentary forms of communication. Since it is largely supplemented by gesture, discussion is limited to tangible objects, especially those in the immediate vicinity. Such a mode of communication is of limited value only.  If the contact is prolonged and intimate a fuller form of communication must develop and the pidgin either abandoned or expanded. It is likely that since the sixteenth century several pidgin Englishes have come into existence and died out. The only two options open to a marginal pidgin are to disappear or to become more useful by the expansion of its resources. b.Phase 2 : Period Of Nativization This phase would have begun as soon as the pidgin English was used by and between local people. At this stage it could be expanded in only one way, from the users’ mother tongues. This phase helps to account for the indigenous lexical items and the numerous direct translations found in all pidgin and creole Englishes. The expansion of a pidgin is facilitated by two main factors: its developing in a multilingual area and its use not so much in non-native to native contact as in contacts between native inhabitants speaking mutually unintelligible languages. In this phase can be occured reduplications. Reduplicated forms occur in all the English-based pidgins and creoles. Besides reduplications taken over from the local languages, three types of reduplicated English forms can be attested; (a)reduplications to reduce the number of homophonous forms (b) reduplications which extend the meaning of the simple form (c)reduplications used as intensives, this type being confined to the adjective/verb class. Items borrowed from indigenous languages, the lexical items which found their way from local languages into pidgin and creole Englishes were often, not unexpectedly, related to the local culture and conditions. Word-compounding and calquing, to extend the pidgin’s vocabulary one could combine different items from the pidgin either (a) on the analogy of English patterns, or (b) in direct translations from the mother tongues. c.Phase 3 : Influence From The Dominant Language When a pidgin has evolved to phase 2 it is capable of being used as a mother tongue and it is from this point in development that it becomes hard, if not impossible, to distinguish between pidgins and creoles by purely linguistic criteria. At this time vocabularies were extended by borrowing lexical items from the ‘dominant’ language. Usually, as in Hawaii and Sierra Leone, this language was English, but occasionally, as in Surinam, it was another European language, Dutch in the case of Surinam. The pidgin’s expansion is normally closely associated with the ‘dominant’ language, by which I mean the language of government and education, and this, in turn, is almost always the language from which the pidgin’s basic vocabulary is derived. d.Phase 4 : The Post-Creole Continuum This phase is limited to areas where English continued to be an official state language. When the contact between English and the related pidgin or creole was sustained and as education in standard English became more widespread, a process of decreolization occurred. When it is remembered that most extended pidgin and creole Englishes have been in contact with some form of non-creole English for up to three hundred years it is not surprising that they have been influenced to varying degrees by the prestigious standard; though it may be only in the recent past, with the introduction of formal education and the spread of literacy in English, that the influences have really begun to make inroads. That the influence could have been a two-way traffic is dealt with later. The process of decreolization is most in evidence in the New World varieties, though it is to be found in all areas where the two types of language co-exist. As education through English was made compulsory in the West Indies long before such a policy was pursued in West Africa or even in urban areas of Papua New Guinea, it is to be expected that decreolization has proceeded furthest in the former area, and that its creoles have absorbed more and more features of standard English. C.EXAMPLE OF PIDGIN AND CREOLE Pidgins often have a short life. If pidgins develop for a restricted function, they disappear when the function disappear. In some cases, however pidgins go on to develop into fully fledged languages or creole. Creole languages develop ways systematically signaling meaning such as verb tenses, and these may develop into inflections or affixes over time. Example of pidgin : These lines are taken from a famous comic strip in Papua New Guinea: â€Å"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom.† â€Å"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?† â€Å"Fantom, em i go we?† Translation: â€Å"If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.† â€Å"Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?† â€Å"Where did he go?† Example of creole : This table is taken from Janet Holmes, â€Å"An Introduction to Sociolinguistics† Creole languageTranslationKind of Creole  Mo pe aste sa bananI am buying the bananaFrench based Seychelles Creole De bin alde luk dat big triThey always looked for a big treeEnglish based Roper River Creole A waka go a wosu He walked homeEnglish based Saran Olmaan i kas-im chekThe old man is cashing a checkEnglish based Cape York Creole Li pote sa bay moHe brought that for meFrench based Guyanais Ja fruher wir bleibenYes at first we remainedGerman based Papua New Guinea Pidgin German Dis smol swain i bin go fo maketThis little pig went to marketEnglish based Cameroon Pidgin Other example of creole are from Tok Pisin. Tok PisinEnglishTok PisinEnglish Bik Big, largeBikimTo enlarge, make large Brait WideBraitimTo make wide Daun LowDounimTo lower Nogut BadNogutimTo spoil PretAfraidPretimTo frighten, scare DotiDirtyDotim REFERENCES Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Holm, John. 2004. An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Todd, Loreto. 2005. Pidgins and Creoles. London: Routledge Kouwenberg, Silvia & Singler, John Victor. 2008. The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ambarwati, Rosita. 2012. An Introductionto Sociolinguistics Modul. Magetan: Javas Grafika http://www.uni-due.de/SVE/VARS_PidginsAndCreoles.htm, (accessed at 08.36 a.m, October 4th, 2012) http://www.hevanet.com/alexwest/pidgin.html, (accessed at 08.36 a.m, October 5th, 2012)

Introduction. Islam And Medieval Christianity Have Had

Introduction Islam and Medieval Christianity have had a combative attitude towards each other. Islam considers Jesus as a continuation of the line of the Prophets, while Christians consider Jesus as the Son of God who came to redeem the world from its fallen nature. These two religions are one two of the largest religions across the world and impact billions of people. Some individuals in both religions view each other as infidels and the only recourse is to remove them from the society at large. The warring nature of these two Abrahamic religions allowed for them to develop in differing ways in Western and Eastern Europe. The growth of Islamic during the 600s to the 1500s made changes to Christianity by making the Pope a powerful†¦show more content†¦Islam did not have a direct hand in feudalism creation, but the constant threat that had been posed by Islamic raiders from the South produced the need for troops. At the Battle of Tours in 733, Charles Martel defeated a large r Islamic raiding force and ultimately throwing them out of France for the rest of the Middle Ages. Over time, feudalism was sold as God’s method of organizing society into the three classes: those that pray, those that fight, and those that work. Feudalism would have continued do to the strength of the Catholic Church, but broke down because of an agricultural revolution, the Black Death, and a rise of merchant capitalism that finally died out in the 1500s. The consistent invasion by foreign powers and the warring stature between the rival European states made the clergy especially the Pope a powerful political leader. The Pope was considered the leader of the Western Catholic Church and in the medieval world, became a political ruler. Initially, Jesus had stated that his kingdom was not of this world, and the church was often at odds with the Roman state. 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Essay on Out of Control Violence in Youth Sports

Out of Control: Violence in Youth Sports On Tuesday March 9, high school students and families exited the Chelmsford Forum following the Eastern Massachusetts’ Division 1 North hockey championship. Those rooting St. John’s (Shrewsbury) departed satisfied that their 13th-seeded Pioneers are heading to the FleetCenter for a chance at the state title. Heavily favored Matignon (Cambridge), however, came out on the short end of the 4-2 final. A heated argument amongst fans escalated. Taunting ensued. Insults exchanged. When throwing words proved ineffective, the instigators tried hurling coins. The melee that followed resulted in two St. John’s students being hospitalized. 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